The events of September 11, 2001 have resulted in a heightened interest regarding protective measures required in order to survive a chemical and/or biological attack by terrorists. Accordingly, many of our customers have requested information concerning the various types of chemical and biological agents that constitute the weapons of mass destruction threat. In response, this information update was developed to provide a brief, but concise, overview of chemical and biological warfare agents and their various characteristics. Information presented was derived through various Government and private-sector sources, such as the Federation of American Scientist papers, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention publications, Testimony proceedings from U.S. Congressional Hearings on Weapons of Mass Destruction issues, U.S. Department of Defense Field Manuals on Weapons of Mass Destruction, U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense publications, Testimonial proceedings before the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, as well as Associated Press media reports and other various Government documents.

Answer: First, biological agents are many times deadlier than chemical agents. As an example, ten grams of anthrax spores could kill as many people as 2,000 pounds, or one ton, of the nerve agent Sarin. Biological agents can take days to display symptoms while chemical agents are measured in minutes to hours. Generally, the toxicity of chemical warfare agents falls between the more deadly biological warfare agents and that of traditional and conventional munitions and weapons. Chemical weapons are typically disseminated through artillery rounds, cluster bombs and missile warheads. Unlike chemical warfare agents, biological warfare agents require aerosolization into small particles in the one to five micron particle size range. However, both biological and chemical weapons are significantly affected by meteorological conditions. For example, the relative coverage of 1,000 kilograms of the nerve agent Sarin is about 8 square kilometers under favorable weather. This type of attack would result in an estimated 3,0000 to 8,000 deaths. A similar attack using only 100 kilograms of anthrax would cover about 300 square kilometers and result in about 1 to 3 million deaths. Given the impact of biological warfare agents, anthrax, under favorable weather, could kill as many people as a comparably sized nuclear device. While chemical and biological agents are often grouped together when considering weapons of mass destruction (WMD) issues, each type represents significantly different medical, treatment and response issues. Additionally, biological warfare agents can be used in non-combat settings under the cloak of natural occurrence of disease. For this reason, biological weapons offer a greater possibility for use than do nuclear weapons according to U.S. Air Force documents on germ warfare.

Answer: Choking agents consist of CG and DP designated agents, such as Phosgene. Phosgene irritates the alveoli in the lungs and causes the constant secretion of fluid into the lungs. As a result, the lungs slowly fill with fluid and the victim dies from the lack of oxygen. There is NO antidote for choking agents.

Answer: G and V series nerve agents enter in the vapor and aerosol form through the eyes and lungs. Liquid forms can enter through the eyes, skin and mouth.

Answer: Yes, many chemical compounds that are available within industry can be used to produce effects similar to the typical nerve, blister, blood and choking chemical warfare agents.

Answer: It is the intentional use of diseases to affect an adversary’s military force, civil population, crops, water supply, or livestock.

Answer: Toxins are poisons naturally produced through the activities of living organisms. Toxins can be produced by plants, microorganisms and animals.

Answer: Pathogens are disease-producing microorganisms such as bacteria, mycoplasma, rickettsia, fungi or viruses. These microorganisms may be naturally occurring or "engineered" by manipulation of recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

Answer: They are cheap and effective. Termed, "the poor man’s nuclear bomb", biological warfare agents are relatively easy to acquire, produce and deploy. Compared to chemical warfare agents, only a small amount of biological warfare agent is necessary to kill hundreds of thousands, or even millions of people in a metropolitan center. Moreover, biological weapons are also relatively easy to conceal and dispersal can be performed with little or no chance of being detected. Low technology aerosolization methods are only required, such as agricultural crop dusters or aerosol generators on trucks, cars or even a purse-size perfume atomizer. According to the Federation of American Scientists, biological agents used as weapons offer a unique capability to inflict large numbers of casualties over a wide area with minimal logistics requirements. In 1969, the United Nations estimated that the cost of conducting warfare operations against a civilian population at $1.00 per square kilometer for biological weapons, while chemical weapons cost about $600.00 per square kilometer and $800.00 per square kilometer for nuclear operations; conventional munitions operations was estimated at $2000.00 per square kilometer.

Answer: There are two basic categories of biological warfare agents: (1) microorganisms and: (2) toxins. Microorganisms are living organic germs, such as anthrax, while toxins are the byproducts of living organisms or effectively natural poisons, such as botulism.

Answer: According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, there are six biological agents that are identified as high priority because of their risks to national security. These are smallpox, anthrax, plague, botulism toxin, tularemia and hemorrhagic fevers.

Answer: Unfortunately, rogue nations and even terrorist groups can develop biological weapons, beginning with little or no biological background. The best example is Iraq in the mid 80s, leading up to the Gulf War in 1991. Subsequent to the Gulf War in the early 90s, much was learned about Iraq’s biological warfare program through United Nations inspections in addition to intelligence provided by Iraqi defections. It should be noted that Iraq began their biological warfare program from essentially nothing and was able to provide effective covert operations through the use of traditional industrial and medical equipment. In about 1985, Iraq started actual research and development efforts with initial efforts focused on acquiring bacterial strains from overseas sources in about April 1986. According to United Nations data developed after the Gulf War, a total of 6,000 liters of concentrated botulinum toxin and about 8,500 liters of anthrax were produced at Al Hakam in Iraq during 1990. Additionally, 5,400 liters of concentrated botulinum toxin were produced at another Iraqi facility during a 3 month period, with another 400 liters of the same biological agent made in Taji, Iraq. Reports also indicate that another 150 liters of concentrated anthrax were made at a separate Iraqi facility located in Salmak Pak, Iraq. Static field trials of anthrax and botulinum toxin dispersal were conducted using aerial bombs as early as March 1988. Additional weaponization testing was conducted in November 1989 using 122 mm rockets and field firings with biological agents in May of 1990. Records also indicate that Iraq produced a biological warfare agent known as clostridium perfringens, which can cause severe gastric effects; a total of 340 liters of concentrated agent was manufactured. After the testing phase, the Iraqi biological warfare program entered the production phase in about December 1990. Iraq filled more than 150 bombs and some 50 warheads with various biological agents; all of the weapons were dispersed to forward storage and staging locations for use. Other efforts by the Iraqis include work on a modified aircraft drop tank for biological spray operations. The biological warfare dispersal tank could be attached either to a piloted fighter or to an unmanned aircraft that could be guided to the target by a piloted aircraft. The tank was designed to spray up to about 2,000 liters of anthrax.

Answer: First remember that airborne biological warfare agents, in order to be effective, must be dispersed as very fine dispersed particles, or aerosols, less than about 5 micrometers in size - that’s no easy task. Additionally, infection with an aerosolized biological agent usually requires deep inspiration of an infectious dose. Secondly, unlike many chemical weapons, aerosolized biological agents do not penetrate unbroken skin and few organisms successfully adhere to skin or clothing. After an aerosol attack of a biological weapon, simple removal of clothing eliminates a great majority of surface contamination. According to the U.S. Department of Defense FM 8-9, intact skin provides an excellent barrier for most, but not all biological agents. However, mucous membranes and damaged skin constitute breaches in this normal barrier through which biological agents may readily pass. A thorough shower with soap and water can remove 99.99% of the few organisms left on the victim’s skin after removal of the contaminated clothing. Third, don’t use surplus gas masks or gas masks that have not been specifically approved for use in chemical/biological environments. Gas masks with multi-layer HEPA elements can filter 99.9% of 1 - 5 micrometer particles, but users of masks should keep in mind that face-seal leaks can significantly reduce the efficacy by as much as 10-20% and of course, you have to have a gas mask on before an attack in order to receive the benefit of the filtration and protection. Most importantly, users of gas masks should understand the capabilities and operational limitations of respirator equipment well in advance of using such equipment while stationary, as well as when undergoing quick movement, such as running. Accordingly, individual face-fit testing is required to correct seal leak problems and to assure that the correct size face mask is used. Fourth, of the potential biological agents, only plague, smallpox and viral hemorrhagic fevers are spread readily from person to person by aerosol and require more than standard infection control precautions. Reportedly, limited quantities of vaccinations are available for anthrax, botulinum toxin, tularemia, plague, Q fever and smallpox.

Answer: Anthrax, or Bacillus anthracis, is a large, aerobic, spore-forming bacillus. Anthrax occurs naturally worldwide. The organism exists in the soil as a spore. The bacterium ordinarily produces a zoonotic disease in domesticated and wild animals such as goats, sheep, cattle, horses and swine. Humans can become infected by contact with infected animals or contaminated animal products, as well as inhaling anthrax spores. According to the Department of Defense Information Paper on this deadly agent, Anthrax is 100,000 times deadlier than the most lethal chemical warfare agent and is therefore the greatest biological warfare threat faced by U.S. military personnel.

Answer: A lethal dose of anthrax is considered to be about 10,000 spores and 80% of a population that inhaled such a dose would die. Less than one millionth of a gram is invariably fatal within five days to a week after exposure.

Answer: According to recent media reports, only 18 cases of inhalation anthrax have been documented from 1900 to 1976 in the United States, with several documented cases reported in or about the first week of October, 2001 in Florida.

Answer: Infection occurs predominantly through the skin. More than 95% of anthrax cases are cutaneous. After inoculation, the incubation period is about 1 to 5 days. The disease first appears as a small papule that progresses over 1 -2 days to a vesicle containing fluid with many organisms and a paucity of leukocytes. The vesicle ruptures, leaving a necrotic ulcer. The lesion usually is painless and varying degrees of edema may be present around it. Patients generally experience fever, malaise and headache, which may be severe in those with extensive edema. In general, mortality should be less than 1% with adequate treatment of antibiotics.

Answer: Inhalation Anthrax is the most likely form of disease to follow a terrorist attack through the aerosolized delivery of anthrax spores. Anthrax resulting from inhalation has a typical incubation period of 1 to 6 days, but a latent period as long as 60 days has been experienced. Initial manifestations are nonspecific headache, malaise, fatigue, myalgia and fever, along with a cough and mild chest discomfort. These symptoms continue for about 2 to 3 days, followed by a sudden onset of increasing respiratory distress with dyspnea, stridor, cyanosis, increased chest pain, and diaphoresis. The onset of respiratory distress is followed by the rapid onset of shock and death within 24 to 36 hours. Mortality is nearly 100% despite appropriate post-exposure treatment.

Answer: Plague is an infection caused by Yersinia pestis, that has caused 3 great human pandemics in the 6th, 14th and 20th centuries. Throughout history, the oriental rat flea has been largely responsible for spreading bubonic plague. If the plague were as a biological warfare agent, it would most likely be inhaled as an infectious aerosol and result in primary pneumonic plague (epidemic pneumonia). Pneumonic plague results in a productive cough with blood-tinged sputum within 24 hours of symptom onset. Antibiotics are the standard treatment regime. If fleas were used as carriers in an attack, bubonic or septicemic plague would result.

Answer: Variola, or smallpox, represents a significant threat as a biological warfare agent. Variola is highly infectious and is associated with a high mortality and secondary spread. Smallpox has killed more than 500 million people in the 20th century before being eradicated in about 1977. Vaccinations stopped in 1980. Currently the majority of the U.S. population has no immunity and little vaccine is readily available and no treatment exists for the disease. Smallpox virus is highly infectious by aerosol means, is environmentally stable and can retain infectivity for long periods. After exposure to aerosolized virus, the virus multiplies locally in the respiratory tract. After an incubation period of 7 to 17 days, Smallpox is spread hematogenously to regional lymph nodes. Two types of smallpox generally are recognized. Variola major, the most severe form, has a fatality rate of 30% in unvaccinated individuals and 3% in those previously vaccinated. Variola minor, a more mild form of smallpox, produces lethality in only about 1% of unvaccinated individuals.

Answer: After a 7 to 17 day incubation period, symptoms begin with high fever, headache, rigors, malaise, myalgias, vomiting and abdominal and back pain. During the initial phase, about 15% of patients develop delirium, and 10% of light-skinned patients may develop a fleeting erythematous exanthem. After 2 to 3 days, an exanthem develops on the face, hands, and forearms and extends gradually to the trunk and lower extremities. Patients are most infectious on days 3 through 6 after the onset of fever.

Answer: Botulinum toxin is the most lethal toxin known and is therefore considered a credible threat as a biological warfare agent. This agent is easily manufactured and weaponized with exposure likely through inhalation of an aerosolized toxin or ingestion of contaminated food. Recently, Iraq admitted to active research on the offensive use of botulinum toxins and to weaponizing and deploying more than 100 munitions with botulinum toxin. Botulism is caused by intoxication with any of seven distinct neurotoxins produced by the bacillus, Clostridium botulinum. Symptoms of air-borne inhalation-based forms are similar to those with food-borne botulism. Air-borne symptoms may begin as early as 24-36 hours following exposure or as late as several days. Initial signs and symptoms include prosis, generalized weakness, lassitude and dizziness. Diminished salivation with extreme dryness of the mouth and throat may cause complaints of a sore throat. Urinary retention may also occur. Motor symptoms usually are present early in the disease, including blurred vision. Development of respiratory failure may be abrupt. Reported cases of botulism prior to 1950 had a mortality of 60%. With tracheotomy and ventilator assistance, fatalities can be as low as < 5%. Intensive and prolonged nursing care may be required for recovery, which may take several weeks or even months.

Answer: Without supportive care, inhalation of nanograms of this agent will cause progressive muscular paralysis leading to asphyxiation and death.

Answer: Ricin is a glycoprotein toxin found in the seed, or "bean", of the castor plant. Ricin is a credible biological threat due to it’s availability world-wide and the relative ease of production and extreme pulmonary toxicity when inhaled. Exposure can be through ingestion or inhalation. All reported cases of castor bean ingestion have taken about the same course: a rapid onset of nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps and severe diarrhea with vascular collapse followed by death on the third day or later. Inhalation exposure may have nonspecific symptoms of weakness, fever, cough and hypothermia followed by hypotension and cardiovascular collapse with the exact cause of death unknown. Higher doses by inhalation produce severe pulmonary damage, resulting in death. There is presently no antitoxin available for treatment.

Answer: Cholera is a diarrheal disease caused by Vibrio cholera, a short curved bacteria. Humans become infected by consuming water or food contaminated with the organism. After exposure, the organism multiplies in the small intestine and secretes a toxin that causes diarrhea. When employed as a biological warfare agent, cholera will most likely be used to contaminate water supplies. Cholera is unlikely to be used in the aerosol form due to difficulty in the bacteria surviving aerial dispersal. Without treatment, death may result from severe dehydration, hypovole mia and shock. Vomiting is usually present early in the illness and may promote fluid loss. Surprisingly, there is little or no fever or abdominal pain associated with Cholera. The treatment of Cholera depends heavily on replacement of fluid and electrolytes through IV. Vaccination using the current vaccine provides only about 50% protection that lasts for no more than 6 months. Antibiotics will shorten the duration of diarrhea.

Answer: Clostridium perfringens is a common anaerobic bacteria that is associated with three disease syndromes: (1) gas gangrene; (2) enteritis necroticans; and (3) clostridium food poisoning. There are at least 12 proteins elaborated, and one or more of these could be produced, concentrated, and used as a weapon. Waterborne disease is conceivable, but unlikely. The alpha toxin form would be lethal if deployed via aerosol and other toxins from the bacteria could be co-weaponized and enhance effectiveness and further hamper treatment. Gangrene is a well known life threatening illness. Symptoms of gangrene may at first may be subtle before fulminant toxemia develops. The bacteria produces toxins that produce the high mortality from clostridial myonecrosis and result in the intense pain in proportion to the wound. Within hours, signs of systemic toxicity appear, including confusion, tachycardia, and sweating. Additionally, most Clostridia species produce large amounts of CO2 and hydrogen that cause swelling, resulting in gaseous constituents in the soft tissues and the emission of foul smelling gas from the wound. Features of gangrene include necrosis, dark red serous fluid and numerous gas filled vesicles. The infection grows and can progress up to 10 cm per hour. Early diagnosis and therapy are essential to prevent rapid progression to toxemia and death. Early antibiotic treatment is effective if undertaken before significant amounts of toxins have accumulated in the body. The organism itself is sensitive to penicillin and is the primary drug for use.

Answer: Congo-Crimean hemorrhagic fever, or CCHF, is a viral disease caused by the CCHF virus. First isolated in the Congo, this disease is naturally transmitted by ticks, principally of the genus Hyalomma, with intermediate vertebrate hosts varying within the tick species. The disease was later found in the Crimea, and also has occurred in the Middle East, the Balkans, the former USSR and eastern China. In the late 1960s, it was determined that the pathogen causing Crimean hemorrhagic fever was the same as that responsible for an illness identified in 1956 in the Congo, and linkage of the 2 place-names resulted in the current disease name and virus. Humans can become infected through tick bites, crushing an infected tick, or at the slaughter of infected livestock and inhaling aerosols of the agent. The most probable means of delivering the agent by terrorists is aerosol. The length of the incubation period for illness appears to depend on the mode of acquisition of the virus. Following infection through tick bite, the incubation period is about one to three days, with a maximum of about 9 days. The incubation period following contact with infected blood or tissues is about 5 to 6 days, with a documented maximum of 13 days. Onset of typical cases involves sudden fever and chills in about 3 to 12 days after tick exposure. Additionally, there is severe headache, lumbar pain, nausea and vomiting, delirium and prostration, fatal cases associated with extensive hemorrhage, coma and shock. Mortality is about 15 - 30%, with death usually occurring in the second week of illness. According to recent media reports, an apparent outbreak involving approximately 100 people was underway along the Afghanistan and Pakistan border, during the first week of October 2001.

Answer: Tularemia is a zoonosis caused by the bacterium Franciella tularensis. The disease is characterized by a fever, localized skin or mucous membrane ulceration, regional lymphadenopathy, and occasionally pneumonia. The disease was discovered by G. W. McCay in Tulare County, California in 1911. Tularemia can be divided into the ulceroglandular and typhodial forms. Patients with ulceroglandular tularemiahave lesions of the skin or mucous membranes, lymph nodes greater than 1 cm in diameter, or both. Patients with typhodial tulremia present with lymph nodes less than 1 cm in diameter and without skin or mucous membrane lesions. In humans, as few as 10 - 50 organisms will cause the disease if inhaled. After an incubation period of 3 to 6 days, patients with the ulceroglandular form of the disease develop various symptoms consisting of fever, chills, headache cough and myalgia. Additionally, patients may complain of chest pain, vomiting, arthralgia, sore throat, abdominal pain, diarrhea, dyspnea, back pain or neck stiffness. A cutaneous chancrelike ulcer occurs in approximately 60% of patients and is the most common sign of tularemia. Patients with tularemia who do not receive appropriate antibiotic therapy may have a prolonged illness characterized by malaise, weakness and weight loss. With appropriate anti-biotic therapy tularemia has a mortality of only about 1 - 2.5%.

Answer: While there are various new detectors in work for chemical and biological agents, the M8 detector paper and the M9 detector tape are both used by individuals for detection of chemical agents in the immediate environment around an individual. These are available from Tactical Gear Command. The M256A1 and M90 are also available for chemical detection, as well as the Improved Chemical Agent Monitor (ICAM), along with the MK 21 Chemical Agent Point Detection System and the M42 and M21/M22 alarms.

Answer: First, the accurate and efficient detection of biological agents is a complex problem. Given the chemically indistinguishable organic properties of biological agents, the methodology for detecting chemical agents is simply not useful, since each potential biological warfare agent requires a specific assay to detect and identify. During Desert Storm, the U.S. military fielded only a rudimentary and developmental-stage detector system. This system could detect only two of several possible Iraqi biological warfare agent threats. In addition to the limited scope of the detector, it took between 13 to 24 hours after the attack to determine the presence and identity of the biological agent. There was NO capability to provide any real-time or advanced warning of a biological attack. During the Gulf War, the first likely indication of an attack was ill or dying soldiers. However, the U.S. Military deployed the M31 Biological Integrated Detection System (or BIDS) in 1996, which uses a multiple technology approach to detect biological agents with maximum accuracy. BIDS is a vehicle mounted fully integrated system that is collectively protected and is mounted on a HUMMER. Thirty-eight (38) units were fielded which are capable of detecting and identifying four biological agents simultaneously in less than 45 minutes. Additionally in 1996, the U.S. Military began fielding the Interim Biological Agent Detector (or IBAD). The IBAD provides shipboard detection of biological warfare agents and is capable of detecting an increase in particulate background. IBAD can detect a change in background within 15 minutes and can identify biological agents in another 30 minutes. The U.S. Military also has other biological detector systems, such as the Joint Portal Shield Network Sensor System and the Hand Held Immunochromatographic Assay system, in addition to the DOD Biological Sampling Kit and the Long Range Biological Stand-Off Detector System. The M93 NBC Reconnaissance System, known as the FOX, is a high mobility armored vehicle capable of performing NBC reconnaissance on primary, secondary and cross country routes throughout the battlefield. Other more advanced systems are currently in development.

Answer: The M8 detector paper is the only means of identifying the type of chemical agent present in liquid form on the battlefield. Each soldier is typically issued one booklet of M8 paper in the interior pocket of the gas mask carrier. The tape paper is tan in color and comes in a booklet containing 25 perforated sheets that are 2 inches by 3 inches in size and are sealed in a polyethylene envelope. A soldier entering an unknown liquid suspected of being a chemical agent must don and check his mask within nine seconds and quickly don the attached hood and other protective gear. The soldier then removes the booklet of M8 paper from the gas mask carrier, tears a half sheet from the booklet, and if possible, affixes the sheet to a stick or some other extension device. Using the stick as a handle, the soldier then blots the paper onto the unknown liquid and waits about 30 seconds for a color change. The resulting color is then compared to the colors on the inside of the front cover of the booklet to identify the type of liquid agent encountered. Yellow is G, or nonpersistent Nerve agent, Red is H, or Blister agent and Olive or Green indicates V, or Persistent nerve agent. It should be noted that false positives can occur if liquid insecticides are on the surface being tested, as well as antifreeze or petroleum products.

Answer: The M9 detector tape detects the presence of liquid chemical agent, but does not identify either the specific agent or the type of agent encountered. Each soldier is typically issued one 30-foot long and 2-inch wide roll of M-9 paper, or tape. An adhesive backing is incorporated into the tape in order to facilitate wrapping the paper, or tape, around a sleeve or trouser leg. Because the indicator dye in the paper is a potential carcinogen, gloves should be worn during application, and the paper should not contact the skin. The M9 tape is a dull, off-white or cream color in the absence of liquid agent, but contains an indicator chemical that, when dissolved in liquid agent, turns a reddish color. When the soldier sees the color change, the gas mask is immediately put on. The M9 paper will detect nerve agent or blister agent droplets as small as 100 microns in diameter. False positives may be seen if the paper is exposed to antifreeze, liquid insecticide, or petroleum products. M9 tape, which is similar to masking tape, is used by attaching strips to the individual outer garments and to equipment, such as vehicle controls. The strips are then visually inspected routinely for color change. The tape should not be attached to hot surfaces.

Answer: The U.S. Military uses a system of components for tactical and battlefield conditions, when used together, that provides for varying degrees or stratified levels of protection against chemical and biological agents. The system is constantly being improved and updated as textile technologies progress. The system consists of a Chemical Protective Overgarment, a Chemical Protective Undergarment, a Chemical Protective helmet cover, protective overboots, protective gas masks, a field protective hood, chemical protective gloves, and various auxillary kits such as individual decontamination kits.

Answer: In general, chemical protective clothing ensembles can be made to protect skin from chemical agents by either physical or chemical means: (1) the garment can be made of fabric that is impermeable to most substances and is basically airtight and waterproof or: (2) the garment system can be made of a fabric that is permeable to most molecules, but chemically alters or physically removes chemical agents before they reach the skin. With regard to the first method, the toxic substances are totally excluded because the agent is physically prevented from penetrating the garment material. The problem with this method is that excess heat and moisture builds up since the garment is airtight, and natural cooling through perspiration is simply not possible due to the water vapor not being able to pass through the outer garment. Indeed, heat injury can occur using this approach, particularly when considering soldiers who are expected to carry out their duties while on the move, along with a variety of other tactical tasks. Accordingly, most military and military-related protective overgarments depend on the garment fabric’s ability to adsorb the threat agent while allowing for some level of air permeability and cooling capability. While specific garment designs vary, the basic approach to this requirement is through the use of activated charcoal in different forms. It should be noted that special equipment, not related to the stratified approach is used for applications when higher concentrations are expected, such as decontamination crews or stockpile monitoring.

Answer: Placing a soldier into full chemical protective equipment, including mask, overgarment, gloves and boots is a decision that not only involves the necessary protection needed to address the threat, but also the added heat stress and potential for dehydration and decrease in force effectiveness. The physical burden of a full protective suit with the various pieces of protective gear can add about 9 to 14 pounds to a normal load. As a result, this added weight combined with heat stress, possible dehydration and physical exertion can cause significant impairment to any mission. Because of these factors, the completeness of protection is stratified according to the anticipated magnitude of biological or chemical threat. This U.S. military doctrine is referred to as Mission-Oriented Protective Posture, or MOPP. There are 7 basic MOPP levels, each with it’s own capability to afford protection and allow for physical and tactical responsiveness. According to the U.S. Army Chemical School at Fort McClellan, Alabama, the MOPP levels are:

MOPP Ready: Soldiers carry their protective masks with their load-carrying equipment with the gear labeled and stored no further back than the battalion support area and is ready to be brought forward if needed within a 2 hour time period. Additionally, a second set of MOPP gear is available within 6 hours. However, units at MOPP Ready are highly vulnerable to attacks with persistent agents and will automatically upgrade to the next level, MOPP Zero when it is determined, or if notification is received that chemical/biological weapons have been used or that the threat has increased.

MOPP Zero: Soldiers carry their protective masks with their load-carrying equipment. The standard chemical protective overgarment and other individual protective equipment that constitute the soldier’s MOPP gear are readily available. "Readily available" means that equipment must either be carried by each soldier or be stored within the soldier’s arms’ reach. Units at MOPP Zero are highly vulnerable to attacks with persistent agents and will automatically upgrade to MOPP1 when they determine, or are notified, that persistent chemical weapons have been used or that the threat for use of chemical weapons has risen.

MOPP 1: When directed to MOPP 1, soldiers immediately don the chemical protective overgarment. In hot weather, the protective overgarment jacket may be unbuttoned and the overgarment may be worn directly over the underwear. M9 or M8 chemical detection paper is attached to the overgarment. MOPP 1 provides a great deal of protection against persistent agents. The level is automatically assumed when chemical weapons have been employed in an area of operations or when directed by higher commands.

MOPP 2: Soldiers put on their chemical protective footwear covers, or multi-purpose overboots, and the protective helmet cover is worn. As with MOPP 1, the chemical protective overgarment may be left unbuttoned but the trousers remain closed.

MOPP 3: Soldiers wear the protective mask and hood. Particularly in hot weather, soldiers may open the overgarment jacket and roll the protective mask hood for ventilation but the trousers remain closed.

MOPP 4: Soldiers will completely encapsulate themselves by closing their overgarments, rolling down and adjusting the mask hood, and putting on the NBC rubber gloves with cotton liners. MOPP 4 provides the highest degree of chemical protection, but it also has the most negative impact on an individual’s performance.

Mask-Only Command: Only the protective mask is worn. The mask-only command is typically given in the following situations: 1. When riot control agents are being employed and no chemical or biological threat exists. 2. In a downwind vapor hazard of a nonpersistent chemical agent. The mask-only command is not appropriate when blister agents or persistent nerve agents are present.

Answer: This is one of the latest additions to the U.S. Military’s arsenal of chemical/biological protective equipment. The LANX Chemical Protective Undergarment, or CPU, is a protective undergarment consisting of trousers, shirt, booties, a balaclava and protective gloves that are all worn underneath the Battle Dress Uniform, flight suit, or other outer military garment. The fabric contains the protection: polymerically encapsulated activated carbon as an integral component of the material fiber. Accordingly, the material does not "dust" or lose carbon to the user or the environment, thereby affording a shelf life of about 12 years. The CPU provides continuous proactive protection of chemical/biological vapors and aerosols and can be laundered for 10 times. A unique advantage of the CPU is that the protection is covert since the system is worn beneath BDUs, duty uniforms, or flight suits. Accordingly, critical pieces of gear, such as weapons and other personal gear remain available for use and are unencumbered by the protective garment.

Answer: The U.S. Military is continuing the acquisition of the Joint Services Lightweight Integrated Suit Technology (or JSLIST) suits as a replacement for the Battle Dress Overgarment (or BDO) and other chemical suits. Accordingly, the BDO will continue to be used until the end of their service life. In fact, the BDO is reaching its maximum extended shelf life limit of 14 years and there are no companies in production. The newest U.S. Military Chemical Protective Overgarment (or CPO) is the JSLIST Overgarment suit that contains carbon beads for chemical adsorption of chemical agents and provides vapor, aerosol and liquid/splash protection. Flight suit versions are also available. The JSLIST Overgarment is a universal, lightweight, two piece, front-opening garment that can be worn as an overgarment, or as a primary uniform over personal underwear. It has an integral hood, bellows-type pockets, high-waist trousers, adjustable suspenders, adjustable waistband and waist-length jacket that enhances system comfort and is designed for use up to 45 days of continuous wear, providing 24 hours of chemical protection.

For domestic law enforcement, EMA and First Responder chemical/biological overgarment applications, the Federal Bureau of Investigation wears the LANX Chemical Protective Overgarment. This innovative protective garment system is based on polymerically encapsulated activated carbon that is integral to the fiber and fabric material; the outer shell material is specially treated 50% cotton and 50% nylon in a rip-stop fabric and comes in a variety of camo patterns and solid colors. Tactical Gear Command supplies the LANX Chemical Protective Overgarment system, including integral gloves and protective booties.

Answer: During the Gulf War, this component was made from butyl-coated nylon cloth with an elastic web in the hem in order to maintain fit on the helmet. The current configuration is an integral hood that is sewn into the JSLIST and LANX CPO Parka.

Answer: Several models of protective masks were used by the U.S. Military in the Gulf War, with some of the same designs and models in use today. All of the masks protect the face and airways from airborne contamination by all known chemical or biological agents, as well as radioactive dust. In the Gulf War, most U.S. troops in dismounted ground operations were issued the M17 series mask. Some troops were issued the newly developed M40 protective mask. Both the M40 and the M17 have similar basic functions and levels of protection, but the M40 is more comfortable with improved convenience and voice transmission characteristics. They both include a binocular lens system, elastic head harness, voicemitters and filters to trap NBC agents. The M40 and the M42 series masks are undergoing the final stages of fielding to replace the M17, M9 and M25 series counterparts. The new versions of the 40 series masks offer increased protection, improved fit and comfort, ease of filter change, better compatibility with weapon sights and a second skin. The Army in cooperation with the Marine Corp recently completed a product improvement program for the M40 series mask that allows ground crew to aircrew communication. The M17 series was made of butyl rubber while the M40 facepiece is made of silicone with a second skin which is made of butyl rubber. Mounted crewmen were issued the M25 mask and the M24 mask was issued to aircrews. The Air Force ground personnel used the M17 series mask or the newer MCU-2/P series. The MCU-2/P is similar to the M40 except that it has a single large eye lens instead of two. Currently, the MCU-2/P is issued for all Air Force ground crew; the M40 series continues use today by the Army, Marine Corps and selected Navy personnel. The MCU-2P is the standard Navy and Air Force mask that provides protection from tactical concentrations of chemical and biological agents by forming an airtight seal around the user’s face so that only filtered air can enter. It is constructed of silicone rubber with a uni-molded facepiece and comes with a large, flexible and optically clear urethane lens, along with a drinking tube for use with a canteen or chemical-resistant hydration system. A voicemitter transmits the user’s voice outside the mask. The MCU-2A/P is identical to the MCU-2P mask except for the voice frontmitter. The MCU-2A/P has two voicemitters, one on the side for use with ships’ phones, the other on the front for use with sound powered phones and the 1MC.

Answer: The M95 gas mask is a NIOSH approved respirator and provides the highest levels of efficiency and comfort in modern NBC protection and meets the most critical hazards and stresses encountered in combat or law enforcement situations. The M95 filter cartridge can be mounted on the left or right using the standard 40 mm thread interface. The M95 mask has a 20 year shelf-life, and the filter has a 10-year shelf life. This mask also features a drinking device, along with a 6-point head harness for maximum comfort. This gas mask and filter canister is available from Tactical Gear Command.

Answer: The MSA Millennium® Chemical-Biological Mask is a Hycar version of the reliable U.S. Military MCU-2/P mask, used by the U.S. Air Force, that combines high performance, customized fit, comfort and cost efficiency. This advanced mask is effective against biological agents and GA, GB, GD, VX, Mustard and Lewisite chemical warfare agents. The mask features a 1-piece polyurethane lens with a wide field of vision and has dual canister mount using the NATO standard 40 mm thread which allows weapon sighting from either shoulder. A drinking tube provides a standardized connection for fluid ingestion in contaminated atmospheres. The 6-point head harness is fully elastic and promotes easy-on/off with no hair pulling. An internal nosecup with 2 check valves deflects air from the lens in order to reduce fogging. This mask is also NIOSH approved for protection against CN, CS and P100 particulate efficiency and particulates. A standard mechanical speaking diaphragm is included, or an optional communications system can be added. The mask typically comes with one (1) filter canister with a four (4) year shelf life if not opened. This gas mask and filter canisters are available from Tactical Gear Command.

Answer: The MSA Advantage® 1000 Gas Mask is a clean and simplified gas mask with a Hycar facepiece that is based on a proven facepiece design used by the U.S. Armed Forces. This gas mask was recently featured in an article in Newsweek for it’s effectivity in protecting against toxic agents. This popular mask about 40% lighter than conventional full face respirators and provides high performance, a customized fit, economy and user acceptance. Similar to the Millennium® mask, this mask also features a flexible 1-piece polyurethane lens with a wide field of vision and dual-canister bayonet mounts that facilitates weapon sighting from either shoulder. The mask is fully-elastic, 6-point head harness that promotes easy on and off, and user-friendly adjustment. A standard nosecup reduces fogging and this mask also comes with a standard mechanical speaking diaphragm or a communications system can be added. This mask is also NIOSH approved for protection against CN, CS and is P100 particulate efficiency rated for particulates. This gas mask is available from Tactical Gear Command.

Answer: Effective against chemical and biological agents, the MSA Phalanx gas mask is specifically designed for use by law enforcement and emergency response personnel. The low profile of the mask allows the mask to be used in conjunction with other protective tactical equipment, such as helmets and face-shields. The Phalanx mask is molded from black Hycar rubber which resists chemical attack and temperature extremes, along with rugged daily use. Hycar is particularly resistant to permeation against chemical warfare agents. The facepiece is soft and pliable for a snug and comfortable fit. NIOSH approved for CN and CS gas, this mask is also effective against OC riot control agents. Dual canister mount allows weapon firing from either shoulder and this mask comes with a standard speaking diaphragm for clear, close range communications. The facepiece adapts to an optional ESP communications system. This gas mask is available from Tactical Gear Command.

Answer: It depends on your gas mask type. The M1 chemical canteen top and tube assembly will allow users of the MCU-2A/P, M40 and M95 masks with the means for hydration using a traditional canteen fitted with the special M1 cap. Most recently, the U.S. Army approved a 2 liter hydration reservoir for use with these same masks. This system is worn on the back and provides a convenient extended source of hydration while on the move. The M1 canteen top and the new hydration system are available from Tactical Gear Command.

Answer: The hood attaches to and is donned with the mask. It protects the head and neck from chemical agents, biological agents and nuclear contaminants. The current JSLIST and LANX CPO parka incorporates a hood for this purpose.

Answer: The glove set includes outer gloves made of impermeable butyl rubber and inner gloves made of thin cotton to absorb moisture. The outer gloves come in three thicknesses:

7 mil - The 7 mil gloves are used by medical personnel, computer operators, electronic repair and service personnel, etc., who need high touch sensitivity and who normally will not expose the gloves to harsh treatment.

14 mil - The 14 mil gloves are used by aviators, vehicle mechanics and weapon crews needing some touch sensitivity but who also are unlikely to give the gloves harsh treatment.

25 mil - The 25 mil gloves are used by troops who perform close combat and other heavy labor.

Answer: During the Gulf War, vinyl-based materials were used in the Black Vinyl Overboot (or BVO) and the Green Vinyl Overboot (GVO). These boots, when worn over combat boots, provides an impermeable protective barrier against chemical, radiological and biological hazards, as well as rain and snow. Current issue boots are called the Multipurpose Overboot (or MULO) and has been adopted by all four DOD services. The MULO is a 60 day boot that provides 24 hours of chemical protection and features increased traction, improved du